Tag: Electrons
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Ionization Energy
Introduction Ionization energy is a fundamental property of atoms and molecules in the field of atomic and molecular physics. It refers to the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom or a molecular entity in its gaseous state. It’s usually measured in electron volts (eV) or joules (J). First Ionization Energy The…
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Klystron
Introduction A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube, invented by Russell and Sigurd Varian in 1937, which is used to amplify high-frequency radio waves. Klystrons are used in a variety of applications, including radar systems, satellite communication, television broadcasting, particle accelerators, and in medicine for radiation therapy. Principle of Operation The basic operation of…
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Protons
Introduction Protons are subatomic particles with positive electric charge. They reside with neutrons within the atomic nucleus, with electrons “orbiting” around them. Basic Properties The proton carries a positive charge, denoted as , where is the elementary charge. The value of the elementary charge is: The mass of a proton is significantly greater than that…
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Photomultiplier Tube
Introduction Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are a type of vacuum tube used to detect and amplify signals from individual photons. PMTs are known for their high sensitivity to light, fast response, and large amplification factors. Structure of a Photomultiplier Tube A PMT typically consists of three main components: Working Principle When a photon strikes the photocathode,…
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Pauli Exclusion Principle
Introduction The Pauli Exclusion Principle is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics, formulated by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli in 1925. This principle is crucial for understanding the behavior of electrons in atoms and forms the basis for the structure of the periodic table of elements. Statement of the Pauli Exclusion Principle The Pauli Exclusion Principle…
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Hall Effect
The Hall effect is a phenomenon in which a voltage is generated across a conductor when an electric current flows through it and a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of the current. This effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879 and has since been widely used in various applications, including measuring…